Loading...
Please wait, while we are loading the content...
Similar Documents
Relationship between Negative Emotion and ADHD among College Males and Females.
| Content Provider | Semantic Scholar |
|---|---|
| Author | Kearnes, Tori B. Ruebel, Joseph B. |
| Copyright Year | 2011 |
| Abstract | This study extends a body of research indicating a relationship between negative emotion and Attention DeficitHyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Gender differences in the self-reporting of negative emotion among college students with ADHD were examined. Sixty-four college students (39 male, 25 female), with a diagnosis of ADHD, and 109 college students (37 male, 72 female), who were evaluated yet received no ADHD diagnosis, completed self-report measures of negative emotion. Results suggest that regardless of gender, students with an ADHD, Combined Type diagnosis reported significantly more negative emotion compared to students with no diagnosis. Gender differences were evident within both the ADHD, Combined Type and No Diagnosis groups, with females scoring significantly higher than males. This pattern continued to distinguish students with an ADHD, Combined Type diagnosis from those with no diagnosis within each gender. Prevalence rates for Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have varied across studies, but it is likely that between 3-7% of school-age children legitimately meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition – Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) criteria for ADHD (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Although ADHD is more frequently identified and diagnosed in males, actual gender ratios have varied widely across studies. Estimates from studies with children referred for an ADHD evaluation range from a low of 2:1 (males: females) to a high of 10:1, with an average ratio of 6:1 (Barkley, 1998). Quinn and Wigal (2004) postulate that the difference in prevalence rates is a result of referral bias (stemming from the overt and disruptive aggressive and antisocial behaviors observed more often among males). Faigel (1995) hypothesized that ADHD may be less noticeable and harder to diagnose in females because females are typically socialized to be quieter and less protesting than males. Males and females with ADHD may also differ in the expression of symptoms associated with the disorder. Brown, Abramowitz, Dadan-Swain, Eckstrand, and Dulcan (as cited in Barkley, 1998) reported that among clinic-referred children with ADHD, females were more socially withdrawn and were more likely to be anxious and depressed. Shea (1996) found that boys with clinically significant impulsivity ratings showed more negative and variable affect than a comparison group. Negative and variable mood in girls was associated with teacher ratings of ADHD but not necessarily with the predominantly hyperactive-impulsive version of ADHD. Studies with children identified as hyperactive at school have reported that girls tend to be rated by teachers as having fewer behavioral and conduct problems, but do not show fewer symptoms when measured in the laboratory (Barkley, 1998). Finally, in a comparison of 130 girls ages 6-17 with an ADHD diagnosis to 120 girls with no ADHD diagnosis, it was found that rates of major depression (17%), anxiety disorder (32%), and bipolar disorder (10%) were elevated among girls with the ADHD diagnosis (Biederman as cited in Barkley, 1998). Furthermore, while rates of negative emotion were comparable to rates reported for boys with ADHD in earlier studies, girls were nevertheless rated as less oppositional and as showing fewer conduct problems than the boys with ADHD. In their meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in ADHD symptomatology, Gaub and Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 24(1) 32 Carlson (1997) concluded that there were no significant gender differences on measures of impulsiveness, academic performance, or social functioning, yet girls were typically rated by observers as less hyperactive than boys and as expressing fewer “externalizing” symptoms, (such as aggression and conduct problems). Nadeau (2004) noted that girls with ADHD tend to be more hypersensitive to criticism. She described many adolescent girls with ADHD as compliant and seeking to conform to others’ expectations and not draw attention to themselves. She also proposed that hormonal fluctuations in females with ADHD may exacerbate symptoms of ADHD and contribute to dramatic mood swings, irritability, and emotional overreaction. Quinn and Wigal (2004) conducted an online survey examining attitudes related to gender and ADHD. Their sample included adults in the general public, parents of children aged 6-17 years with ADHD, teachers with experience teaching a child with ADHD, and children aged 12-17 years with an ADHD diagnosis. A majority of the general public (58%) and teachers (82%) responded that ADHD is more common in boys. Comparatively, among teachers, 85% believed that girls are more likely to go undiagnosed, due primarily to the fact that girls do not “act out” (92%). A majority of both the general public and teachers reported that boys with ADHD struggle the most with behavioral and classroom problems, while girls suffer academic problems, inattention, and feelings of depression. Far less is known about the prevalence of the disorder among adult males and females or how symptomatology may evolve and adjust with maturity. Results of one survey measuring symptoms of 720 adults against the DSM-IV ADHD criteria indicated an overall prevalence rate of 4.7% (Murphy & Barkley, 1996). Of those adults meeting DSM-IV criteria for ADHD, 2.5% were classified as Predominantly Hyperactive/Impulsive Type, 1.3% as Predominantly Inattentive Type, and 0.9% Combined Type. These results were quite similar to those reported by DuPaul, Weyandt, Schaughency, and Ota in their 1997 study with 700 college students (as cited in Barkley, 1998). Using DSM-IV criteria, results indicated that 2.5% of the college students classified themselves as Predominantly Inattentive Type, 0.9% as Combined Type, and 0.9% as Predominantly Hyperactive/Impulsive Type. Based upon these results, Barkley (1998) estimates that ADHD may be the second most common disability affecting college students and young adults, with prevalence rates between 3 and 5%. Anywhere from 30-80% of children diagnosed with ADHD are likely to continue to display significant, age-inappropriate symptoms into adolescence (August, Stewart, & Holmes, as cited in Barkley, 1997; Barkley, Fischer, Edeilbrock, & Smallish, 1991). Following a large-scale longitudinal study, Weiss and Hechtmann (as cited in Javorsky & Gussin, 1994) determined that approximately 66% of these children continued to display significant impairment related to symptoms of ADHD into adulthood. In addition, research suggests that the symptoms reported by adults diagnosed with ADHD are similar to those described by children and adolescents and their parents and teachers (Barkley, 1997). Barkley (1998) has proposed that the traditional DSM-IV criteria for ADHD may become increasingly less sensitive to the presence of dysfunction as clients age. This possibility reinforced a need to re-examine the ADHD criteria across the lifespan as well as the traditional view among professionals and the public that most children “grow out of “ADHD by adulthood. It is clear that this is not always the case, and there is a continued need in the research literature to document the difficulties associated with ADHD among adults. Emotional Regulation Research on the relationship between symptoms of ADHD and poor emotional regulation (Barkley, 1997, 1998; Martel, 2009; Ramirez et al., 1997) is growing. Children diagnosed with ADHD are frequently described as irritable, hostile, excitable, and generally emotionally hyper-responsive. Biederman, Faraone, Mick, Moore, and Lelon (1996) found that children with ADHD, as a group, were rated by researchers as having more symptoms of anxiety, depression/dysthymia, and low self-esteem. Barkley (1997) discovered a link between a diminished ability to mentally represent and sustain internal information from prior event-emotion relationships (or contingencies) to problems with “reawakening” these emotional states when confronted with a particular situation. For example, when confronted with a stressful event, a person diagnosed with ADHD may not be able to recall his or her past efforts towards molding negative emotions into more positive ones. Barkley postulates that negative affective states including anger, frustration, sadness, anxiety, and guilt are more problematic for individuals diagnosed with ADHD because it is harder for them to create positive states through self-comforting, self-directed speech, and visual imKearns & Ruebel; Relationship Between Negative Emotion and ADHD 33 agery. Without being able to engage in covert emotion regulation, there is very little to no delay between an event and the emotional response. In essence, Barkley is stating that the affective response to an event is less likely to undergo a period of contemplation, modification, and reframing in the individual with ADHD. This results in decreased affective self-control and an increase in the expression of negative affect. Wender (as cited in Ramirez et al., 1997) reported that there exists an emotional instability component in childhood ADHD, often noted as labile mood that usually continues into adulthood. There are numerous studies which suggest that individuals diagnosed with ADHD in childhood are typically diagnosed with an accompanying, longstanding psychiatric condition. For instance, research by Szatmari, Offord, and Boyle (as cited in Barkley, 1998) suggests that up to 44% of children diagnosed with ADHD may have at least one other psychiatric diagnosis. In their review of epidemiologic studies of children with ADHD, Biederman, Newcorn, and Sprich (1991) concluded that approximately 25% also had an anxiety disorder, and that 15-75% had a mood disorder. Likewise, Lahey, Pelham, Schaughency, et al. (as cited in Biederman et al., 1991) found that children meeting DSM-III criteria for ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type reported higher rates of anxiety compared to ch |
| Starting Page | 31 |
| Ending Page | 42 |
| Page Count | 12 |
| File Format | PDF HTM / HTML |
| Volume Number | 24 |
| Alternate Webpage(s) | https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ941730.pdf |
| Language | English |
| Access Restriction | Open |
| Content Type | Text |
| Resource Type | Article |
