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Running head : GIRLS PLAYING GAMES Girls Playing Games : The Effect of Gender Stereotypes on Video Game Playing Motivation and Performance
| Content Provider | Semantic Scholar |
|---|---|
| Author | Chan, Elaine Y. |
| Copyright Year | 2008 |
| Abstract | Research on gender and video game playing has long been interested in the question of why females play fewer video games and play video games less frequently than males do. The present study examines the immediate impacts of a negative gender stereotype on females' motivation for and performance in playing a racing video game. Exposure to a negative gender stereotype about video game playing was expected to decrease competence beliefs and motivation to play the game, as well as worsened performance. Results were in the hypothesized directions, although no statistically significant differences were found. Implications for theories of video game playing and achievement motivation are discussed. Girls Playing Games 3 Girls Playing Games: The Effect of Gender Stereotypes on Video Game Playing Motivation and Performance Published empirical research on sex differences in video game playing over the last two decades consistently has found that males play video games more hours per week compared to females, more frequently than females do, and they are more likely to self-identify as video gamers (Buchman & Funk, 1996; Colley & Comber, 2003; Gentile, Lynch, Linder, & Walsh, 2004; Kubey & Larson, 1990; Ogletree & Drake, 2007; Phillips, Rolls, Rouse, & Griffiths, 1995; Roberts & Foehr, 2004; Roe & Muijs, 1998; Van Schie & Wiegman, 1997). These findings have been consistent across different countries and within different age groups. Numerous studies have established the fact that playing video games is considered masculine and is more popular among males than among females (Funk & Buchman, 1996a, 1996b; Hartmann & Klimmt, 2005, 2006; Newman, 2004), and the social construction of video game playing as a primarily male activity seems to persist (Williams, 2006). Gender roles, stereotypes, and the social construction of gender are likely to influence females’ motivation to play video games. This representation of video game playing often is reinforced by video game content and game marketing aimed at adolescent and young adult males (Beasley & Standley, 2002; Dietz, 1998; Ivory, 2006). The belief that video game playing is a male activity may have implications for sex differences in video-game related competence beliefs and motivation to play. The present study focuses on a previously unexamined potential proximal cause for females’ lower interest in video game play—negative stereotypes about female players. The gender-typed nature of gaming is not a stereotype per se, although it may contribute to a stereotype that females are poorly skilled at playing video games, which can influence the Girls Playing Games 4 individual’s ability beliefs and the subjective value of video game playing. Although scholars have suggested that gender role and gender role stereotypes about video game playing are likely to affect females’ game playing (Brown, Hall, Holtzer, Brown, & Brown, 1997; Cassell & Jenkins, 1998), no known published research to date has examined how such stereotypes can affect motivation at the point of exposure. In comparison, a relatively abundant literature has focused on the effect of stereotype exposure on behavior and performance (Beilock, Jellison, Rydell, McConnell, & Carr, 2006; Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev, 2003; Marx & Stapel, 2006; J. L. Smith, 2004; Steele, 1997; Wheeler & Petty, 2001 and others). This study examines whether a gender stereotype about video game playing affects the intrinsic motivation to play a commercial video game. Does exposure to a negative stereotype about women’s skills at video game playing influence a female’s motivation for playing a video game? How does stereotype exposure influence expectancies about video game playing? In terms of effects on behavior, does exposure to a negative stereotype about female video game playing harm actual performance in the game? Theory Attempts to explain females’ lack of motivation to play games, relative to males, fall into three major categories of argument. The first suggests that something about the games themselves does not appeal to females, for reasons of nature, nurture, or some combination thereof. Video games’ non-appeal may stem from the content—namely, that it includes generous amounts of violence and hypersexuality, or an insufficient supply of female main characters (Beasley & Standley, 2002; Dietz, 1998; Downs & Smith, 2005; Hartmann & Klimmt, 2006). Certain games’ style—three-dimensional rotation, coloration, and lack of textures—may not Girls Playing Games 5 appeal to females and their particular set of cognitive skills (Lucas & Sherry, 2004; Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 1994). Or perhaps it is games’ structure, i.e., their competitive nature does not appeal to females, who are less competitively-oriented (Hartmann & Klimmt, 2006). A second explanation considers the environmental factors that may contribute to females not playing games. For example, video game equipment may not be available for use in girl-only households, video game systems may not be owned by their friends, or females may be less likely to find video game playing an effective way to socialize with their friends (Lucas & Sherry, 2004). A third type of argument points to social factors’ contribution to females not playing games: namely, that video game playing is a male-typed domain (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998; Funk & Buchman, 1996a). Such arguments may point to the early history of computer gaming as the reason why games are associated with male computing culture (Kiesler, Sproull, & Eccles, 1985), and includes the claim that the culture of technology is gendered (Williams, 2006), or that the leisure spaces associated with gaming are male-typed overall (Bryce & Rutter, 2003; Gailey, 1993). Whereas the claims made regarding the first two arguments have been tested empirically, the influence of gender socialization, particularly gender roles and stereotypes on females’ video game playing motivation, has received little observational attention. Flow and Self Determination Theory Two competence-based theories that have been useful for explaining the motivation to play games and pursue media entertainment more generally are Flow Theory (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although Czikszentmihalyi’s (1990) concept of flow may be applied to traditional media use (Kubey & Czikszentmihalyi, 1990; Sherry, 2004), the theory seems particularly suited to explain the enjoyment of video game play Girls Playing Games 6 and has been applied as such (Choi & Kim, 2004; Kubey & Czikszentmihalyi, 1990; Sherry, 2004; Sweetster & Wyeth, 2005). Recently, Self-Determination Theory has also been applied to understand why users of media entertainment are motivated to do so (Vorderer, Steen, & Chan, 2006), and empirically tested regarding the enjoyment of video games (Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, 2006). These theories and their application to video game play are outlined below. Ryan and Deci’s (2000) Self-Determination Theory (SDT) posits that intrinsically motivating activities are so because they fulfill needs for competence, autonomy, and social integration. The types of activities that are intrinsically motivating, and thus fall within the scope of the theory, are those which feature novelty, challenge, or aesthetic value. The authors suggest that satisfaction of these needs through participation in intrinsically motivating activities relates not only to an immediate experience that is enjoyable, but healthy development and functioning, i.e., long term well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Mini-theories within SDT focus on antecedents and outcomes of fulfillment of these needs, for example, Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), which examines how social environment and context promote or prevent a sense of autonomy or competence, and thus intrinsic motivation. Ryan et al. (2006) tested the applicability of SDT and CET to video game playing with four studies looking at properties of video game environments and their associations with SDT needs and short term well-being outcomes. The authors assert that the satisfaction of immediate psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and where relevant, relatedness) provide the proximal psychological determinants of game play. The authors also suggest that “perceived competence is among the most important satisfactions provided by games, as they represent arenas in which a person can feel accomplishment and control” (p. 4). Girls Playing Games 7 Taken together, this body of research suggests that the development of skill and perceived competence promote positive media use experiences and motivation. Applied to video games, the research implies that a high level of perceived competence should be associated with a high level of enjoyment. This relationship suggests the first hypothesis: H1: Greater perceived game playing competence after play will be associated with greater video game playing enjoyment. In addition, theories of planned behavior and expectancy-value theories in general suggest that expected competence motivates behavior and action (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). The following hypothesis follows from such theories and research: H2: Greater expected competence before playing a video game will be associated with greater motivation to play the video game. Stereotypes and their effects on performance What are stereotypes? The term, initially used to describe equipment used for print reproduction, was adapted for use in a social sense by the U.S. journalist Walter Lippman, who described stereotypes as “pictures in our heads” that are often resistant to change (Lippman, 1922, cf. Kunda, 1999). Allport (1979) described stereotypes as overgeneralized and oversimplified beliefs used to characterize a group of people. In recent psychological literatures of social cognition, stereotypes are usually viewed as cognitive structures that contain our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about a social group (Kunda, 1999). These mental repre |
| File Format | PDF HTM / HTML |
| Alternate Webpage(s) | http://meaningfulplay.msu.edu/proceedings2008/mp2008_paper_43.pdf |
| Language | English |
| Access Restriction | Open |
| Content Type | Text |
| Resource Type | Article |
