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Did a Nocebo Effect Contribute to the Rise in Special Education Enrollment Following the Flint, Michigan Water Crisis?
| Content Provider | Europe PMC |
|---|---|
| Author | Roy, Siddhartha Petrie, Keith J. Gamble, Greg Edwards, Marc A. |
| Editor | Rief, Winfried |
| Copyright Year | 2023 |
| Description | Background Exposure to waterborne lead during the Flint Water Crisis during April 2014-October 2015 is believed to have caused increased special education enrollment in Flint children. Method This retrospective population-based cohort study utilized de-identified data for children under six years of age who had their blood lead tested during 2011 to 2019, and special education outcomes data for children enrolled in public schools for corresponding academic years (2011-12 to 2019-20) in Flint, Detroit (control city) and the State of Michigan. Trends in the following crisis-related covariates were also evaluated: waterborne contaminants, poverty, nutrition, city governance, school district policies, negative community expectations, media coverage and social media interactions. Results Between 2011 and 2019, including the 2014-15 crisis period, the incidence of elevated blood lead in Flint children (≥ 5µg/dL) was always at least 47% lower than in the control city of Detroit (p < .0001) and was also never significantly higher than that for all children tested in Michigan (p = 0.33). Nonetheless, special education enrollment in Flint spiked relative to Detroit and Michigan (p < .0001). There is actually an inverse relationship between childhood blood lead and special education enrollment in Flint. Conclusion This study failed to confirm any positive association between actual childhood blood lead levels and special education enrollment in Flint. Negative psychological effects associated with media predictions of brain damage could have created a self-fulfilling prophecy via a nocebo effect. The findings demonstrate a need for improved media coverage of complex events like the Flint Water Crisis. Highlights Waterborne lead exposure during the Flint crisis did not correlate with special education enrollment.Flint children were repeatedly labeled as lead poisoned and brain damaged in the aftermath.A nocebo effect could have contributed to negative educational outcomes in Flint.Erroneous, negative media labels can be internalized and lead to psychological harm in children. |
| Related Links | https://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC10103158&blobtype=pdf |
| Volume Number | 5 |
| DOI | 10.32872/cpe.9577 |
| PubMed Central reference number | PMC10103158 |
| Issue Number | 1 |
| PubMed reference number | 37065004 |
| Journal | Clinical Psychology in Europe [Clin Psychol Eur] |
| e-ISSN | 26253410 |
| Language | English |
| Publisher | PsychOpen |
| Publisher Date | 2023-03-31 |
| Access Restriction | Open |
| Rights License | This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) 4.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. |
| Subject Keyword | blood lead lead exposure Flint Water Crisis nocebo effect special education |
| Content Type | Text |
| Resource Type | Article |
| Subject | Psychiatry and Mental Health Clinical Psychology |
